We see public confession of sins in other texts from the NT (Mark 1:5; Matthew 3:6; Acts 19:18; 1 John 1:9). Other early Christian communities understood this in a communal sense (1 Clem. 51.3; 52.1; Did. 14.1; Barn. 19.12; Hermas 1; 9; 100; cf. also Did. 4.14, which commands the young convert to “confess [ἐξομολογήσῃ, same verb as in James 5:16] your sins in an assembly [ἐν ἐκκλησίᾳ]).” There is nothing in the text to support the practice of oracular confession to a priest or minister—unless